________________________________________________________

Assigned Amount Unit
www.AssignedAmountUnit.com

Assigned Amount Units - AAU

What is an Assigned Amount Unit (AAU)?

An Assigned Amount Unit (AAU) is a tradable unit of 1 tCO2e.

See our related websites at: www.AssignedAmountUnit.com and www.AssignedAmountUnits.com for more information.

What is an Assigned Amount (AA)?

The quantity of greenhouse gases that an Annex I country can release in accordance with the Kyoto Protocol, during the first commitment period of that protocol (2008-12).

_____________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

What is a Certified Emission Reduction?

A Certified Emission Reduction (CERs) is the technical term for the output of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects, as defined by the Kyoto Protocol. A unit of Greenhouse Gas reductions that has been generated and certified under the provisions of Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).

In contrast, Emission Reduction Credits (ERCs) are used for Joint Implementation (JI) under Article 6 of the Protocol. According to Article 12, Certified Emission Reductions must be "certified by operational entities to be designated by the Conference of the Parties (COP) serving as the Meeting of the Parties (MOP)."

What is Distributed PV?

Distributed PV is a form of "distributed solar generation" or "dispersed generation" except that the form of power (electricity) generated comes from photovoltaic systems.

What is "Distributed Solar Generation"?

Distributed Solar Generation, is a form of "Distributed Generation" except that the renewable energy that is generated "onsite" (on the customer's rooftop) is through solar energy systems.

Distributed Solar Generation is the opposite of "centralized generation" wherein the electricity is generated at "central power plants" that are sometimes located hundreds of miles away from a "load center" where the customers are located. Central power plants generate electricity by burning fossil fuels or through nuclear energy. Either way, central power plants are highly inefficient - especially when they are located far from the customers buying their electricity, and in the case of fossil fuels, like coal fired power plants, are responsible for about 40% of the planet's greenhouse gas emissions.  Distributed Solar Generation produces ZERO greenhouse gas emissions.

Distributed Solar Generation - while not completely accurate, has also been referred to as; onsite power generation, dispersed generation, or decentralized energy.  

Distributed Solar Generation is a method of generating electricity and other forms of energy, such as hot water from evacuated tube collectors, from systems that are installed at the locations that the power and energy is needed - thereby eliminating the need for inefficient "central" power plants typically owned and operated by electric utility companies.  

Increasingly, more and more distributed generation systems are being installed with renewable energy technologies such as solar energy systems.

What is Rooftop PV?

Rooftop PV or rooftop photovoltaics is a form of "distributed solar generation" or "dispersed generation" except that the form of power (electricity) generated comes from photovoltaic systems.

What is a "Voluntary Emission Reduction"?

A "Voluntary Emission Reduction" (also referred to as a "VER") is an emission reduction is a reduction in one of the six Greenhouse Gas Emissions that has been achieved voluntarily, and without requirement of law or regulations.

"Voluntary Emission Reductions" (VERs) are also one of the types of carbon credits that have been generated from that are not "certified."

The "certification" of carbon credits, which are more accurately called a "Certified Emission Reduction," are generated, regulated and backed by United Nation's "Clean Development Mechanism" to ensure that real and genuine Greenhouse Gas Emissions reductions have actually occurred

 

Solar Electric Power Systems www.SolarElectricPowerSystems.com Solar electric power systems transform sunlight into electricity. Sunlight is an abundant resource. Every minute the sun bathes the Earth in as much energy as the world consumes in an entire year. Solar cells employ special materials called semiconductors that create electricity when exposed to light. Solar electric systems are quiet and easy to use, and they require no fuel other than sunlight. Because they contain no moving parts, they are durable, reliable, and easy to maintain. How It Works Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic (PV) cells, do the work of making electricity. Several types of solar electric technology are under development, but four—crystalline silicon (a form of refined beach sand), thin films, concentrators, and thermophotovoltaics—are illustrative of the range of technologies. Solar cells are connected to a variety of other components to make a solar electric power system. Crystalline Silicon Crystalline silicon solar cells are used in more than half of all solar electric devices. Like most semiconductor devices, they include a positive layer (on the bottom) and a negative layer (on the top) that create an electrical field inside the cell. When a photon of light strikes a semiconductor, it releases electrons (see animation). The free electrons flow through the solar cell's bottom layer to a connecting wire as direct current (DC) electricity. Some solar cells are made from polycrystalline silicon, which consists of several small silicon crystals. Polycrystalline silicon solar cells are cheaper to produce but somewhat less efficient than single-crystal silicon. A simple silicon solar cell can power a watch or calculator. However, it produces only a tiny amount of electricity. Connected together, solar cells form modules that can generate substantial amounts of power. Modules are the building blocks of solar electric systems, which can produce enough power for a house, a rural medical clinic, or an entire village. Large arrays of solar electric modules can power satellites or provide electricity for utilities. Solar Electric Power System Components In addition to modules, several components are needed to complete a solar electric power system. Many systems include batteries, battery chargers, a backup generator, and a controller so that people in solar-powered homes and buildings can turn on the lights at night or run televisions or appliances on cloudy days. Grid-connected systems don't require batteries or backup generators because they use the grid for backup power. Some remote system applications, such as those used to pump water, do not require a backup power source. Components of a typical standalone PV system using crystalline silicon technology. (Source: Solar Electric Power Association) Solar electric power systems can incorporate inverters or power control units to transform the DC electricity produced by the solar cells into alternating current (AC) to run AC appliances or sell to a utility grid. Complete systems usually include safety disconnects, fuses, and a grounding circuit as well. Thin Films Solar electric thin films are lighter, more resilient, and easier to manufacture than crystalline silicon modules. The best-developed thin-film technology uses amorphous silicon, in which the atoms are not arranged in any particular order as they would be in a crystal. An amorphous silicon film only one micron thick can absorb 90% of the usable solar energy falling on it. Other thin-film materials include cadmium telluride and copper indium diselenide. Substantial cost savings are possible with this technology because thin films require relatively little semiconductor materials. Thin films are produced as large, complete modules, not as individual cells that must be mounted in frames and wired together. They are manufactured by applying extremely thin layers of semiconductor material to a low-cost backing such as glass or plastic. Electrical contacts, antireflective coatings, and protective layers are also applied directly to the backing material. Thin films conform to the shape of the backing, a feature that allows them to be used in such innovative products as flexible solar electric roofing shingles. Concentrators Concentrators use optical lenses (similar to plastic magnifying glasses) or mirrors to concentrate the sunlight that falls on a solar cell. With a concentrator to magnify the light intensity, the solar cell produces more electricity. Today, most solar cells in concentrators are made from crystalline silicon. However, materials such as gallium arsenide and gallium indium phosphide are more efficient than silicon in solar electric concentrators and will likely see more use in the future. These materials are now used in communications satellites and other space applications. Concentrators produce more electricity using less of the expensive semiconductor material than other solar electric systems. A basic concentrator unit consists of a lens to focus the light, a solar cell assembly, a housing element, a secondary concentrator to reflect off-center light rays onto the cell, a mechanism to dissipate excess heat, and various contacts and adhesives. The basic unit can be combined into modules of varying sizes and shapes. Concentrators only work with direct sunlight and operate most effectively in sunny, dry climates. They must be used with tracking systems to keep them pointed toward the sun. Thermophotovoltaics Thermophotovoltaic (TPV) devices convert heat into electricity in much the same way that other PV devices convert light into electricity. The difference is that TPV technology uses semiconductors "tuned" to the longer-wavelength, invisible infrared radiation emitted by warm objects. This technology is cleaner, quieter, and simpler than conventional power generation using steam turbines and generators. TPV converters are relatively maintenance-free because they contain no moving parts. In addition to using solar energy, they can convert heat from any high-temperature heat source, including combustion of a fuel such as natural gas or propane, into electricity. TPV converters produce virtually no carbon monoxide and few emissions. They may be used in the future in gas furnaces that generate their own electricity for self-ignition (during power outages) and in portable generators and battery chargers. Advantages Solar electric systems offer many advantages. Standalone systems can eliminate the need to build expensive new power lines to remote locations. For rural and remote applications, solar electricity can cost less than any other means of producing electricity. Solar electric systems can also connect to existing power lines to boost electricity output during times of high demand such as on hot, sunny days when air conditioners are on. Solar electric systems are flexible. Solar electric modules can stand on the ground or be mounted on rooftops. They can also be built into glass skylights and walls. They can be made to look like roof shingles and can even come equipped with devices to turn their DC output into the same AC utilities deliver to wall sockets. These advances mean individual homeowners and businesses can relieve pressure on local utilities struggling to meet the increasing demand for electricity. More than 30 states offer grid-connected solar electric system owners the chance to save money on their energy bills by feeding any excess power their solar electric system produces into the utility grid—an arrangement called net metering. Solar power systems require minimal maintenance. They run quietly and efficiently without polluting. They are easy to combine with other types of electric generators such as wind, hydro, or natural gas turbines. They can charge batteries to make solar electricity continuously available. For utilities, large-scale solar electric power plants can help meet demand for new power generation, especially in distributed applications. A solar electric power plant is created from multiple arrays that are interconnected electronically. Solar electric plants are easier to site and are quicker to build than conventional power plants. They are also easy to expand incrementally—by adding more modules—as power demand increases. Solar electric power systems are good for the environment. When solar electric technologies displace fossil fuels for pumping water, lighting homes, or running appliances, they reduce the greenhouse gases and pollutants emitted into the atmosphere. The use of solar electric systems is particularly important in developing nations because it can help avert the expected increases in emissions of greenhouse gases caused by the growing demand for electricity in those countries. Solar electric technologies also benefit the U.S. economy by creating jobs in U.S. companies. Exporting solar electric technologies to developing nations expands U.S. markets while protecting the global environment. Disadvantages Although solar electric systems make financial sense in remote areas that lack access to power lines, they are usually more expensive than fossil fuels for grid-connected applications. This disadvantage is significant for utilities considering large-scale solar electric power plants. Although solar electricity costs considerably more than electricity generated by conventional plants, regulatory agencies often require utilities to supply electricity for the lowest cash cost. Utilities view solar electric power plants differently than they view conventional power plants. Solar electric modules produce electricity intermittently—only when the sun shines. Their output varies with the weather and disappears altogether at night. Integrating solar electricity into a utility system requires creative planning. Applications A combination of solar electric arrays and pool-heating solar collectors were used to provide power and heat to the Georgia Tech University Aquatic Center, site of the 1996 Olympic swimming competition. (Credit: Heliocol) Solar electricity has powered satellites since the dawn of the space program. It has run remote communications outposts high in the mountains and turned on the lights, kept medicines cold, and pumped water in rural areas for more than 30 years. Small solar cells are used to power wristwatches, calculators, and other electronic gadgets. More recently, solar electric systems have been used to provide supplemental power to homes and commercial buildings in cities. Solar electric technology has important roles to play in both the developing and developed worlds. From the farmer irrigating his crops in rural Mexico to an innovative lighting system for an Olympic sports arena, solar electric solutions abound. Electric utilities harness solar electricity for distributed applications—near substations or at the end of overloaded power lines, for example, to avoid or defer costly line upgrades. They use solar electricity during hot, sunny periods when the demand for air conditioning stretches conventional power generation to its limit. The Sacramento Municipal Utility District, for example, uses large solar electric arrays as part of its power generation mix. Utilities also rely on solar electricity to power remote, standalone monitoring systems. Consumers and builders are integrating solar electric modules into their homes and offices. Innovative solar electric technologies can replace conventional roofing and facade materials in new buildings. Solar electric roofing shingles, for example, are being used in some new residences. In grid-connected applications, solar electricity supplies some of a consumer's energy needs; the local utility provides the rest. Standalone solar electric systems power a variety of applications far from the reaches of the power grid. These applications include remote communications systems such as television and radio transmitters and receivers, telephone systems, and microwave repeaters. Standalone solar electric power is also used to prevent corrosion of metal pipes, tanks, bridges, and buildings. Many remote residences worldwide use solar electricity as their source of power. For instance, more than 100,000 vacation homes in Scandinavia rely solely on solar electric technology to run lights and appliances. Villages around the world are building solar electric systems to bring electricity to their homes and local industries, often for the first time. To make the maximum use of available resources, village power is typically produced by a hybrid power system that combines solar electricity with diesel backup generators and sometimes another renewable energy technology such wind power. Villages also use standalone solar electric systems for pumping water—an application shared by rural farmers and ranchers in the United States.

How we make and distribute electricity is changing! 

The electric power generation, transmission and distribution system (the electric "grid") is changing and evolving from the electric grid of the 19th and 20th centuries, which was inefficient, highly-polluting, very expensive and “dumb.”  

The "old" way of generating and distributing energy resembles this slide:

_______________________________________________________

Hubbert's Peak Oil Predictions Now Proving True?

Marion King Hubbert was a geologist and scientist who worked at Shell Oil company's research lab in Houston, Texas.  Hubbert made several important contributions to geology, geophysics and petroleum geology.  Hubbert is most recognized for the "Hubbert Curve" and " Hubbert Peak Theory" which is now referred to as " Peak Oil. 

Hubbert's life work determined that the world has a finite amount of petroleum that can be produced.  (Similarly, there is a finite amount of coal.) Many scientists and engineers believe we have reached Hubbert's "peak oil" limit.  Hubbert's espouses that when 50% of domestic crude oil production has been reached, that there will be such significant upward demand on prices of the limited supplies of oil production, that the U.S. economy will experience severe economic, social, and political turmoil.

Hubbert's Peak Oil predictions have proven to be true and this is validated as the U.S. in the early 1970's produced about 60% of its' oil demand and imported 40%.  That equation has flipped since then, because our domestic oil production has been on the decline since 1970, so now, due to our declining domestic oil production, we have to import 60% of our oil supplies, to meet our country's oil/energy demands.

The Next Oil Shock Could be the "mother" of All Oil Shocks

How severe our economic calamity and next "oil shock" will depend upon a number of factors, including when this occurs, as well as the following:

1.  the dependence of the individual country upon its own crude oil production to meet its energy needs and to subsidize consumer imports; 

2.  the rate of relative decline in crude oil production; 

3.  the degree of difficulty encountered in replacing missing energy inputs; 

4.  the degree to which our country had prepared in advance for this inevitable geological and economic calamity.

Examples of past "oil shocks" and the economic and political calamities that followed:

United States: Our peak crude oil production of domestic oil occurred in 1970; the first "oil shock" and oil crisis followed in 1973 with the Arab/OPEC Oil Embargo.

Iran: Their peak crude oil production occurred in 1974; They had their islamic revolution 1979 that overturned government and replaced it with radical islam.

Soviet Union: Their peak crude oil production was in 1989; what happened next? 
Their country disintegrated and the collapse of the Soviet Union followed in 1991. 

Indonesia: Their peak crude oil production was in 1991; their financial and government crisis followed in 1997.

Iraq: Iraq's crude oil production was in 1989; they then invaded Kuwait (for their oil) in 1991.

Using Mr. Hubbert's predictions, that beginning around 2000  we would see peak (global) oil production, then, if the country's not weaning themselves off of their oil addiction, and had not begun making the switch to renewable energy, that the negative economic and political calamities would soon follow, including ever-increasing prices of energy that is from fossil fuels. 

Now is the time to begin weaning ourselves off of fossil fuels and making the transition to and increasing the use of renewable energy. If you don't believe in climate change, or global warming, GREAT! Join us in the switch to renewable energy and a fossil-free economy!

____________________________________________________________________________

America's Clear and Present Danger

America Has INCREASED its' Dependence on Foreign 
Sources of Energy by 50% Since 1973.

America is even more "addicted" to foreign oil today, than we were in 1973 - 1974 when OPEC, Saudi Arabia and other suppliers from the Middle-East  stopped selling us their fossil fuels, and created a significant blow to our economy.

According to Monty Goodell, Founder and Chairman of the Renewable Energy Institute, "our increased dependence and reliance on foreign energy supplies represents a Clear and Present Danger to our national security, our economy, and the lives and livelihood of every American. Energy - including the energy we use from imported fossil fuels, is the very "lifeblood" of the American economy as it is for every industrialized country.  An economy dies without it's lifeblood of energy. This Clear and Present Danger we face is far more serious than the problems related to greenhouse gas emissions.  And while greenhouse gas emissions are very serious issue, in the long-term, pales in comparison to America's vital national security interests and America's economic stability in the short term.  For this reason alone, America needs to transition away from its addiction to foreign energy supplies. And America's abundant renewable energy resources such as the energy we receive from the sun, and renewable energy technologies such as concentrated solar power (CSP) plants - can supply 100% of America's power requirements with a concentrating solar power plant measuring 75 miles by 75 miles, located in the Southwest U.S.  By generating America's power from concentrating solar power plants, America resolves its' short-term Clear and Present Danger as it relates to importing its energy from foreign countries, and the long-term problems relating to greenhouse gas emissions."

Continuing, Mr. Goodell states that "too many Americans have forgotten what happened to us in 1973, when the Arabs and OPEC brought the United States economy to a screeching halt during the OPEC Oil Embargo.  This happened because they (mainly the country of Saudi Arabia) disagreed with our foreign policy and is the reason why they "turned off the tap" of our need for their oil supplies. When Saudi Arabia and OPEC stopped the vital flow of oil to our country in 1973, they caused an "oil shock" that severely and negatively impacted our economy. 

Mr. Goodell's question for us to ponder is, "do these countries who sell us 60% of our daily energy requirements, like us and our foreign policy, or might they leverage our addiction to their fossil fuels, and turn off the tap to make us adjust or revise our foreign policy??  Like any addict, America's foreign policy may be held hostage to its addiction, and in this case, our addiction to foreign oil, may over-ride our national interests."

Have American's forgotten the gas shortages and long lines at 
their gas stations to get gas during the Arab Oil Embargo of 1973? 

"Apparently so."  Mr. Goodell states that "in 1973, America was 'addicted' and 'over the barrel' of foreign oil to the amount of 40%.  Forty percent of our energy 'needs' in 1973 came from countries - many of which didn't like us then, and I'm afraid, many of them still don't.  The difference between 1973 and today - is that today we receive 50% MORE foreign oil now than we did in 1973.  And now we know about the problems relating to greenhouse gas emissions that we didn't know then.  America needs to change course, and change course now, in terms of its' energy supplies and how we keep America's economy strong, without the threat of being held hostage to a middle-east tyrant or regime, that could once again, turn on us, and turn off our supply of foreign oil." 

Remember ????

"Sadly," Monty Goodell continues, "most Americans have forgotten the long lines of people waiting in their cars - lined up and waiting for gasoline at their nearby gas station, with lines that were many blocks long.  And, after waiting 4-5 hours, many even waiting overnight in many places, to finally take their turn to fill up their car with gasoline, only to find that the gas station had run out of gas." 

"Let me Repeat.... That was 1973 when we imported 40% of our daily energy requirements in the form of crude oil from overseas, and from foreign countries - and many of these from countries that don't like us.

Today, over 35 years later, America has yet to learn the lesson.  We cannot continue our reliance on energy from foreign countries that supply us with 60% of the crude oil that our refineries use as a feedstock for producing gasoline and diesel fuel for our cars and trucks comes from overseas. 

America is "over the barrel" and it's not our barrel, but the barrels of oil that we are addicted by and owned by other countries.  Why have we not learned the lessons we needed to learn in 1973 when we were cut-off from the vital energy supplies we need? 

Countries like China, are growing rapidly, and have an insatiable need for crude oil. China, with their booming economy, is increasingly growing in its clout and control over international supplies of crude oil - whether they do this through their ability to buy as much oil as they need on a daily basis, or whether they simply but American drilling rigs, technology, and explore and produce oil and gas from their own fields. China, is buying large amounts of oil for their country, and causing upward pricing on declining supplies. What happens if Russia, with all of their oil and natural gas, along with China and Venezuela, with or without the help of OPEC, decided to NOT sell oil to us????

To be sure, greenhouse gas emissions are a problem, and to some, greenhouse gas emissions are also a Clear and Present Danger, but not to the extent that it presents an imminent Clear and Present Danger. 

America's reliance for 60% of our energy "needs" coming from foreign suppliers is un-acceptable.

The "driver" to get America to begin reducing and eliminating fossil fuel use should be our nation's national security and the welfare and safety of its citizens. And this can all begin with developing and investing in our own renewable energy resources and renewable energy technologies, let's start by putting solar on every rooftop that has a clear and unobstructed view of the Southern sky. See www.RooftopPV.com  or  www.DistributedPV.com  for more information.  Let's create incentives begin with adopting a national "Feed In Tariff" as Germany did in 1990. 

America, we simply do NOT have the luxury of time on our hands.  We need to end our dependence and reliance on foreign fossil fuels, especially from countries that don't like us! We need to rapidly begin expanding renewable energy resources and renewable energy technologies from our vast and abundant renewable energy resources, such as; solar, solar energy systems, solar cogeneration, solar trigeneration, "solar on every roof," waste to energy, waste to fuel, biomass gasification, B100 Biodiesel, Biomethane, Synthesis Gas, geothermal, E100 Ethanol (from sugar cane and NOT from corn), and wind, where it makes economic sense."

For more information, call or email:

Our following EcoGeneration technologies, including our Biomethane, B100 Biodiesel and Synthesis Gas Fuels Generated from our "Waste to Fuel" technologies are Carbon Free Energy and Pollution Free Power solutions that will:

* forever change the way energy is generated and used.

* eliminate or greatly reduce our customer's electric demand charges and electric expenses.

* slow, stop and eventually reverse climate change by reducing and then eliminating anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions - of which carbon dioxide emissions makes up 80% of all greenhouse gas emissions.

* reduce and eventually eliminate the use of coal and other fossil fuels.

* reduce the need for inefficient and expensive central power plants owned by utility companies. 

* promote energy independence.

* end America's dependence on oil from OPEC and other countries in the Middle-East, Venezuela and end our need for importing natural gas from Russia.

^{_____________________________________________________________________}

The information contained on this site is copyright protected and 
cannot be reproduced in any form or manner without our consent.

Assigned Amount Unit
www.AssignedAmountUnit.com

info@AssignedAmountUnit.com

Renewable Energy Institute

Copyright © 2005
All Rights Reserved